Prof. Yafeng Xia
Email: yafeng.xia@liu.edu
Affiliation: Department of Liberal Arts, Long Island University, New York, United States
Research Interests: Chinse Foreign Relations during the Cold War; Cold War History
Prof. Zhi Liang
Email: zhiliangroy@163.com
Affiliation: Department of History, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
Research Interests: Chinse Foreign Relations during the Cold War; Cold War History
Much of the existing scholarship on Chinese diplomatic negotiation has concentrated on U.S.–China rapprochement in the early 1970s, inadvertently narrowing our understanding of the People’s Republic of China’s broader diplomatic repertoire during the Cold War. This Special Issue redirects attention to China’s establishment of diplomatic relations with non-socialist countries between 1949 and 1979, situating these negotiations at the intersection of ideology, realpolitik, and historical memory. Employing an international history approach, the contributors—senior and mid-career Chinese historians—examine how Beijing navigated the tension between revolutionary principles and pragmatic state interests across diverse bilateral settings. Each article critically engages existing scholarship while drawing on extensive multi-archival research, including underutilized Chinese Foreign Ministry archives alongside Russian, English, and a wide range of Asian and
European sources. Collectively, the studies analyze diplomacy not merely as a policy instrument, but as an institutionalized practice shaped by bureaucratic culture, accumulated experience, and shifting international constraints. By tracing both continuities and adaptations in China’s negotiation strategies from the early Mao period through the late 1970s, this Special Issue contributes to the historiography of Cold War diplomacy and advances a more historically grounded understanding of the PRC’s foreign policy behavior and diplomatic institutions.
the PRC, negotiations, diplomatic relations, non-socialist countries, ideology, realpolitik, the Cold War, historical memory
Yafeng Xia1, Zhi Liang2,*
Nuova rivista storica 2026, 110(3), 677-688 https://doi.org/10.32604/nrs.2026.93762
（This article belongs to the Special Issue: Ideology, Realpolitik, and Historical Memory: China’s Principles and Practices in Establishing Diplomatic Relations with non-Socialist Countries during the Cold War, 1949-1972) More >
Zhi Liang1, Youfeng Wang2,*
Nuova rivista storica 2026, 110(3), 689-714 https://doi.org/10.32604/nrs.2026.080168
（This article belongs to the Special Issue: Ideology, Realpolitik, and Historical Memory: China’s Principles and Practices in Establishing Diplomatic Relations with non-Socialist Countries during the Cold War, 1949-1972)
Abstract: The establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Burma in the late 1940s marks the beginning of contemporary Sino-Burmese relations. Burma’s decision to recognize the impending CCP regime dates back to December 1948, culminating in official recognition of the People’s Republic of China on December 16, 1949, making it the first non-socialist nation to do so. Despite this, formal diplomatic ties were only established on June 8, 1950, due to mutual distrust and geopolitical complexities. During this period, historical memories, geopolitics, and ideologies influenced Sino-Burmese relations, often overshadowing national interests like economic and political exchanges. Furthermore, the relationship was shaped by the involvement of third parties, notably Britain, India, and the Soviet Union. However, by 1953, relations began to improve as China adopted a foreign policy focused on peaceful coexistence and Burma embraced neutralism in its foreign affairs. More >
Nuova rivista storica 2026, 110(3), 715-748 https://doi.org/10.32604/nrs.2026.080176
（This article belongs to the Special Issue: Ideology, Realpolitik, and Historical Memory: China’s Principles and Practices in Establishing Diplomatic Relations with non-Socialist Countries during the Cold War, 1949-1972)
Abstract: This article analyzes the process and motivations behind Sino-Indian diplomatic recognition and the establishment of formal relations between 1947 and 1950 through systematic use of Chinese, Indian, British, and American archival sources. It argues that early Cold War geopolitics profoundly shaped both countries’ perceptions and decisions. India’s recognition of the PRC emerged from intense domestic debate and sustained consultations with Commonwealth partners, neighboring states, and the United States. Its final decision reflected realist concerns over Tibet and border security, the desire to assert a non-aligned foreign policy, and aspirations to exercise regional leadership. For China, policy toward India evolved from early ideological suspicion to a pragmatic acknowledgment of India’s autonomy and non-alignment policy. Negotiations with India provided the PRC with a template for establishing relations with non-socialist countries. The two countries’ strategic autonomy, as well as their initiative in emphasizing mutual recognition and negotiated establishment of relations, broke through both the ideological criteria in Cold War recognition politics and the traditional practice of unilaterally being recognized. More >
Rui Zhang
Nuova rivista storica 2026, 110(3), 749-776 https://doi.org/10.32604/nrs.2026.080167
（This article belongs to the Special Issue: Ideology, Realpolitik, and Historical Memory: China’s Principles and Practices in Establishing Diplomatic Relations with non-Socialist Countries during the Cold War, 1949-1972)
Abstract: On November 6, 1970, the Government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the Government of the Italian Republic signed a joint statement establishing diplomatic relations. Following Jiang Jieshi’s (Chiang Kai-Shek) retreat to Taiwan and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Italy—like the rest of the world—faced the question of how to deal with the “two Chinas”. In the absence of diplomatic relations, Italy and the PRC sought to use unofficial or “people’s diplomacy” to strengthen bilateral relations at both the cultural and economic levels. Only later, as the Cold War balance shifted—notably the Sino-Soviet split and improving US-China relations—did formal recognition become possible. This article presents the evolution of the Italian and Chinese positions, as well as the external conditions and details of the diplomatic conversations between the two parties, and will suggest that the formal recognition of the PRC by Italy created an important precedent for subsequent negotiations with other Western countries, leading up to its formal acceptance into the UN. More >
Nuova rivista storica 2026, 110(3), 777-800 https://doi.org/10.32604/nrs.2026.080145
（This article belongs to the Special Issue: Ideology, Realpolitik, and Historical Memory: China’s Principles and Practices in Establishing Diplomatic Relations with non-Socialist Countries during the Cold War, 1949-1972)
Abstract: Sino-Peruvian diplomatic normalization is best understood as a process of reciprocal accommodation rather than as the inevitable consequence of ideological affinity or Sino-American rapprochement. Diplomatic recognition emerged through the gradual convergence of China’s search for broader international recognition and Peru’s pursuit of greater national autonomy, as both governments accommodated each other’s core strategic interests surrounding the question of China’s representation in the United Nations, Peru’s 200-nautical-mile maritime claim, and the subsequent negotiations over trade and the Taiwan issue. The normalization process further reveals an important transformation in China’s diplomacy toward Latin America, demonstrating Beijing’s growing willingness to engage pragmatically with nationalist governments beyond ideological boundaries while maintaining firm commitments to sovereignty and the One China principle. Rather than serving as a direct blueprint for China’s subsequent diplomatic expansion in Latin America, the Peruvian case represented an early manifestation of China’s evolving engagement with the politically diverse developing world, revealing how pragmatic cooperation, bounded by principled commitments to sovereignty, became an increasingly important characteristic of China’s Third World diplomacy during the Global Cold War. More >
Nuova rivista storica 2026, 110(3), 801-832 https://doi.org/10.32604/nrs.2026.080173
（This article belongs to the Special Issue: Ideology, Realpolitik, and Historical Memory: China’s Principles and Practices in Establishing Diplomatic Relations with non-Socialist Countries during the Cold War, 1949-1972)
Abstract: The establishment of formal diplomatic relations between the People’s Republic of China and Japan in September 1972 marked a pivotal moment, with the consensus achieved during negotiations serving as the foundation for contemporary Sino-Japanese relations, often referring to as the “1972 System”. This article offers a nuanced reassessment of the 1972 System, delving into the negotiation process for diplomatic normalization and identifying four key elements. In addressing historical grievances, including China’s waiver of war reparations and Japan’s reflection on wartime actions, the declaration of the termination of the state of war intersects with the Taiwan issue. Furthermore, achieving the consensus on the “One China” principle while maintaining practical ties with Taiwan holds significant implications. The integration of Sino-Japanese relations within the Japan-U.S. security framework, particularly concerning Taiwan, is another crucial aspect. Lastly, fostering bilateral ties amidst institutional disparities is pivotal element of the 1972 System. Current challenges in Sino-Japanese relations stem from Japan’s divergence from this established framework. More >
Jun Ge1,*, Rongting Wu2
Nuova rivista storica 2026, 110(3), 833-856 https://doi.org/10.32604/nrs.2026.080147
（This article belongs to the Special Issue: Ideology, Realpolitik, and Historical Memory: China’s Principles and Practices in Establishing Diplomatic Relations with non-Socialist Countries during the Cold War, 1949-1972)
Abstract: Following the Sino-American rapprochement after Nixon’s 1972 visit to China, the PRC began exploring formal diplomatic relations with the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). However, Brandt’s government, constrained by its Ostpolitik, maintained a cautious approach towards China. To counter Soviet influence and prevent the FRG from drawing closer to the Soviet Union, China saw the need to swiftly establish diplomatic ties with the FRG. In pursuit of this goal, China sought to leverage the Christian Democratic Union to persuade Brandt’s administration to open diplomatic talks and to make concessions on the West Berlin issue. Despite these efforts, negotiations encountered significant hurdles, with the issue of West Berlin as the primary obstacle. The talks, which lasted over a month, faced delays largely due to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ role as a policy implementer rather than a policy maker. More >
